Water Stress Is Declining in Most EU Countries

Key Takeaways

• Most EU countries remain below the 25% low-stress threshold, and water stress declined in many countries between 2000 and 2022.
• Several countries recorded large reductions, including Lithuania (−19.68 pp), Italy (−9.93 pp), Poland (−9.56 pp), and Portugal (−9.11 pp). These declines are associated with lower water use, infrastructure investment, and policy reforms such as improved irrigation, reduced leakage, and wastewater upgrades.
• Malta stands out as the EU country with the highest water stress (72.60 %) and one of the largest increases (+11.33 pp) over time, driven by structural constraints, such as very limited freshwater resources and high population density.
• A small group of countries, including Malta (+11.33 pp), Cyprus (+6.57 pp), Denmark (+4.74 pp), and Ireland (+3.38 pp), recorded increases in water stress, where persistent climate pressure, seasonal scarcity, and irrigation demand outweighed improvements in water management.

Water Stress in EU Countries

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Water stress measures how much freshwater a country withdraws compared with how much renewable freshwater is available. Under SDG 6.4.2, it is calculated as total freshwater withdrawals as a share of renewable freshwater resources, after accounting for environmental water requirements.

High water stress means there is less room between supply and demand, so water systems may face greater pressure from droughts, population growth, and rising demand from agriculture and industry.

In the EU, many countries remain below the 25% low water stress threshold. Between 2000 and 2022, water stress levels also declined in most EU countries.

Several countries saw notable reductions:

• Lithuania: 21.85% → 2.17% (−19.68 pp)
• Italy: 39.70% → 29.77% (−9.93 pp)
• Poland: 42.05% → 32.49% (−9.56 pp)
• Portugal: 21.43% → 12.32% (−9.11 pp)

Lithuania recorded the largest decline in water stress among the EU countries shown. This is attributed to many factors, including:

• lower industrial water use after industrial production fell
• lower domestic water use because higher water prices encouraged consumers to install meters and save water
• sustained investment in water supply and wastewater treatment 

Despite the sharp declines, these countries still record some of the highest water stress levels. In Portugal and Italy, this is closely linked to strong agricultural and irrigation demand. Meanwhile, Poland’s high numbers are tied to its scarce water resources. 

The declines often reflect modernization measures such as improved irrigation, reduced leakage, wastewater upgrades, and broader water-management reforms.

At the same time, a smaller set of countries saw increasing water stress:

• Malta: 61.27% → 72.60% (+11.33 pp)
• Cyprus: 5.24% → 11.81% (+6.57 pp)
• Denmark: 20.53% → 25.27% (+4.74 pp)
• Ireland: 4.67% → 8.05% (+3.38 pp)

In these countries, rising water stress reflects a tighter balance between water supply and demand. Malta stands out as the clearest outlier, with both the highest level of water stress in the EU and the largest increase over the period.

Malta’s high water stress is largely structural, driven by very limited freshwater resources, groundwater depletion, and saltwater intrusion, compounded by its small and densely populated island geography.

More broadly, the upper end of the distribution is dominated by countries, where seasonal summer scarcity, irrigation demand, tourism, and dry weather keep pressure on water resources high.

These countries are already introducing measures to respond to these scarcities, , including improving irrigation efficiency, protecting freshwater ecosystems, and upgrading water management systems.

However, these efforts are often being outpaced by climate change, droughts, rising temperatures, and stronger demand, resulting in increasing water stress.

Overall, most EU countries show declining or contained water stress, reflecting a combination of water-management measures and more stable supply-demand conditions. However, there are still a few countries where structural and seasonal pressures continue to outweigh adaptation efforts.